You’ve probably sat through a lecture or read a textbook chapter that tossed around words like manifest function, social cohesion, or mental state realisation, and thought:
“Am I supposed to already understand this?”
But here’s the truth: functionalism is one of those foundational ideas that keeps showing up, whether you’re talking about society, schools, or even your brain. It’s everywhere once you know what to look for. The trick is cutting through the fluff and actually getting it.
In this article, you’ll get a clear understanding of:
- What functionalism is
- How it works in both sociology and philosophy of mind
- Who the key thinkers are
- Real examples that bring it to life
- And why some love it, while others tear it apart
1. Functionalism in Sociology
At its core, functionalism is a way of looking at society as a system like a machine or a body where everything plays a part to keep the whole thing running smoothly.
Émile Durkheim: The Foundation
Durkheim saw society as made up of interrelated parts, each serving a specific function. Just like organs in a body, things like education, religion, and law help keep society alive and stable.
He introduced the idea of social facts values, norms, and institutions that exist outside of us but influence our behaviour. These aren't personal opinions; they’re societal forces.
🔍 Example: Durkheim’s study on suicide showed how social integration and regulation affect suicide rates — proving even personal acts can have social causes.
Herbert Spencer: The Organic Analogy
Spencer compared society directly to a living organism. Just like organs work together to keep a body alive, social institutions keep society stable. It was a neat metaphor, but lacked the evidence and depth Durkheim offered.
Talcott Parsons: Systems and Stability
Parsons said society is a system of interdependent parts that meet basic needs to survive like maintaining order, achieving goals, and passing on culture.
He called this the AGIL model:
- Adaptation – Adjusting to the environment (e.g. economy)
- Goal attainment – Setting and achieving collective goals (e.g. government)
- Integration – Keeping social harmony (e.g. law, policing)
- Latency – Maintaining shared beliefs (e.g. family, religion)
Robert Merton: Adding Depth
Merton kept the structure but added nuance. He introduced:
- Manifest functions – The intended, obvious purposes
- Latent functions – The hidden, unintended effects
- Dysfunctions – When something causes harm or instability
🎓 Example:
School’s manifest function: teach knowledge.
Latent function: build peer relationships, reinforce social norms.
Dysfunction: widen inequality between students.
2. Functionalism in Philosophy of Mind
Functionalism also plays a big role in the mind-body debate and here, it asks a different question:
What makes something a mental state?
Functionalists say: it’s not what it’s made of, but what it does.
Imagine pain. If something responds to harm by withdrawing, showing distress, and trying to avoid it again it’s in pain, functionally speaking. Doesn’t matter if it’s a human, a dog, or a robot.
Machine-State Functionalism: Minds as Software
Hilary Putnam and Jerry Fodor pushed this idea by comparing minds to computer software:
- The brain is the hardware
- The mind is the software the pattern of functions it performs
This means mental states can exist in many different kinds of systems, as long as they perform the same functions. That’s called multiple realisability.
🧠 Example: If a robot, human, and alien all scream and recoil when burned and all avoid that situation again then they all functionally experience pain.
What Defines a Mental State?
For functionalists, a mental state is defined by:
- Its inputs (e.g. stubbing your toe)
- Its internal role (e.g. processing it as pain)
- Its outputs (e.g. saying “ouch”, limping, avoiding future pain)
Think of a vending machine: Insert a coin → register credit → release snack. Replace snack with “reaction” and you’ve got a crude model of a mental process.
Common Critiques
- The Chinese Room (Searle) – Can a system appear to understand language but actually have no awareness?
- Inverted Qualia – Could two people behave the same but experience colours or pain differently?
- It ignores consciousness – Explaining functions doesn’t explain what it feels like to be conscious.
3. Applying Functionalism: Real Life and Thought Experiments
In Sociology
Education
- Manifest: Teach skills
- Latent: Socialise kids, provide childcare
- Dysfunction: Reinforces inequality
Religion
- Manifest: Offer spiritual guidance
- Latent: Build community, establish norms
- Dysfunction: Create division
Family
- Manifest: Raise children
- Latent: Reinforce roles, pass on culture
- Dysfunction: Domestic abuse, tension
Stratification (Davis–Moore Thesis)
Some roles are harder and need more skill, so higher rewards keep society running. But critics say this can excuse systemic inequality.
In Philosophy of Mind
Pain
Functionalists say if a thing behaves like it’s in pain, then it is (functionally). Whether it’s carbon-based or silicon doesn’t matter.
Turing Test
If a machine can hold a human-like conversation, functionalists say it shows signs of mind — even if it doesn’t have a brain.
The Chinese Room
A person can manipulate Chinese symbols using a rulebook and give correct responses — but they don’t understand Chinese. Does that count as “thinking”?
Twin Earth
What if another planet had a liquid just like water but chemically different? If it functions the same — quenches thirst, boils at 100°C — is it still “water”?
4. Why It Still Matters — And Where It Falls Short
Why It Matters
- Makes complex systems easier to understand
- Whether you’re studying society or software, it offers a big-picture view.
- It’s widely applicable
- You can use it in sociology, psychology, AI, philosophy — even politics.
- Helps explain stability
- Why do flawed institutions stick around? Because they still serve some purpose — or people think they do.
Where It Falls Short
- Ignores conflict and power
- Functionalism can overlook who benefits and who suffers.
- Can feel circular
- Saying something exists because it’s needed doesn’t explain much.
- Doesn’t tackle experience
- In the mind-body debate, it’s good at modelling behaviour, but not feelings or consciousness.
5. Conclusion: What You Should Remember
Functionalism is about understanding the role something plays in a bigger system — whether that system is a society, a brain, or a computer.
In sociology, it helps explain how social structures work together.
In philosophy of mind, it shows how mental states are about what they do, not what they’re made of.
But it’s not perfect. It can miss power dynamics, gloss over inequality, or leave out what it feels like to be human. Still, it’s a powerful tool — one that gives you a structured way to make sense of complex systems.
Bibilography
Dr. Darshana Ashoka Kumara,
Senior Lecturer, Department of Social Sciences,
General Sir John Kotelawala Defence University,
Sri Lanka.